Admonitions of Ipuwer: 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 – 6 – 7 – 8 – 9 – 10 – 11 – 12 – 13 – 14 – 15 – 16 – 17
Pliny The Younger On Christians
Phlegon of Tralles: Fragment 1 – Fragment 2
This section includes 12 monumental discoveries that provide external, secular support for the Bible, as well as the historicity of Christ and the Gospel accounts.
The Famine Stele is an inscription from the Ptolemaic period describing a seven-year famine during the reign of Djoser, a possible candidate for the pharaoh to whom Joseph reported. Some speculate Imhotep, Djoser’s chancellor, was in fact Joseph.
The Admonitions of Ipuwer, from the Ipuwer Papyrus, were possibly composed in the same century as the Exodus and describe plagues across the land of Egypt and a great change of fortunes for the slaves of the land.
The Tel Dan Stele, from the 9th century BC, provides a reference to “the house of David,” proving the historicity of the Israelite king by that name.
The Merneptah Stele, from the 13th century BC, references Israel during the period of the Judges.
The Mesha Stele, from the 9th century BC, repeatedly references the king of Israel, might also reference David, and utilizes a script virtually identical to Paleo-Hebrew.
The Kurkh Monoliths, also from the 9th century BC, mention both King Ahab and Israel—the only explicit mention of Israel in ancient Assyrian and Babylonian records.
Mar bar Serapion was a stoic philosopher, writing shortly after AD 73, who apparently referenced the death of Jesus.
Pliny the Younger was governor of Bithynia from AD 110–113 and wrote to the emperor Trajan regarding the burgeoning Christian religion which was rapidly spreading. Pliny’s letter and Trajan’s response not only provide one of the earliest secular references to Christianity, but demonstrate that the faith was both mature and widespread by the late 1st century and early 2nd century, mere years after John’s Revelation.
Tacitus, a Roman senator and historian, who held strong, anti-Christian views, nevertheless confirmed both Christ’s existence, His death under Pontius Pilate, and the unfair persecution and genocide of Christians in Rome at the behest of Nero, who used false charges to justify the killings. He wrote circa AD 116.
The Roman historian Seutonius, writing within about 90 years of Christ’s death (circa AD 120), mentions both Christ, as the originator of the Christian sect, and Christians generally, in the context of the persecutions unleashed by both Claudius and Nero.
The Greek writer Phlegon of Tralles, writing in the mid-2nd century, references a widespread darkness that coincided chronologically with the period in which Christ was crucified. This provides possible secular support for the crucifixion darkness. He also mentions the basic Christian beliefs regarding Christ. Most of his Chronicles are no longer extant.
Year Eighteen of Horns: Neter-Khet; the King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Neter-Khet; Two-Ladies: Neter-Khet; Gold-Horus: Djoser; under the Count, Prince, Governor of the domains of the South, Chief of the Nubians in Yebu, Mesir. There was brought to him this royal decree. To inform you:
I was in mourning on my throne, || Those of the palace were in grief, || My heart was in great affliction, || Because Hapi had failed to come in time || In a period of seven years. Grain was scant, || Kernels were dried up, || Sparse was every kind of food. || Every man robbed his twin, || Those who entered did not go. Children cried, || Youths fell, || The hearts of the old were grieving; Legs drawn up, they hugged the ground, || Their arms clasped around them. Courtiers were needy, || Temples were shut, || Shrines covered with dust, || Everyone was in distress. I directed my heart to turn to the past, || I consulted one of the staff of the Ibis, || The chief lector-priest of Imhotep, || Son of Ptah South-of-his-Wall: “In which place is Hapi born? Which is the town of the Sinuous one? Which god dwells there, so that he might join with me?” He stood: “I will go to Mansion-of-the-Net, || It is designed to support a man in his deeds; I will enter the House of Life, || Unroll the Souls of Ra, || I will be guided by them.” He departed, he returned to me quickly, || He let me know the flow of Hapi, || His shores and all the things they contain. He disclosed to me the hidden wonders, || To which the ancestors had made their way, || And no king had equaled them since. He said to me: “There is a town in the midst of the deep, || Surrounded by Hapi, Yebu by name; It is first of the first, || First nome to Wawat, || Earthly elevation, celestial hill, || Seat of Ra when he prepares || To give life to every face. Its temple’s name is Joy-of-life, || Twin Caverns is the water’s name, || They are the breasts that nourish all. It is the house of sleep of Hapi, || He grows young in it in [his time], || [lt is the place from where] he brings the flood: Bounding up he copulates, || As man copulates with woman, || Renewing his manhood with joy; Coursing twenty-eight cubits high, || He passes Sema-Behdet at seven. Khnum is the god [who rules] there, || [He is enthroned above the deep], || His sandals resting on the flood; He holds the door bolt in his hand, || Opens the gate as he wishes. He is eternal there as Shu, || Bounty-giver, Lord-of-fields, || So his name is called. He has reckoned the land of the South and the North, || To give parts to every god; It is he who governs barley, [emmer], || Birds, and fish, and all one lives on. Cord and scribal board are there, || The pole is there with its beam . . . || His temple opens southeastward, || Ra rises in its face every day; Its water rages on its south for an iter, || A wall against the Nubians each day. There is a mountain massif in its eastern region, || With precious stones and quarry stones of all kinds, || All the things sought for building temples || In Egypt, south and north, || And stalls for sacred animals, || And palaces for kings, || All statues too that stand in temples and in shrines.”
“Their gathered products are set before the face of Khnum and around him; likewise tall plants and flowers of all kinds that exist between Yebu and Senmut, and are there on the east and the west. There is in the midst of the river, covered by water at its annual flood, a place of relaxation for every man who works the stones on its two sides. There is in the river, in front of this town of Yebu, a central elevation of difficult body which is called Crophi. Learn the names of the gods and goddesses of the temple of Khnum: Satis, Anukis, Hapi, Shu, Geb, Nut, Osiris, Horus, Isis, Nephthys. Learn the names of the stones that are there, lying in the borderland: those that are in the east and the west, those [on the shores] of Yebu’s canal, those in Yebu, those in the east and west, and those in the river: greywacke, granite, mhtbtb, r’gs, wtsy in the east; prdn in the west; tsy in the west and in the river. The names of the precious stones of the quarries that are in the upper region, some among them at a distance of four iter, are: gold, silver, copper, iron, lapis lazuli, turquoise, thnt, red jasper, k’, mnw, emerald, tm-ikr. In addition, nsmt, red ochre, garnet, ibht, bks-’nh, green eye-paint, black eye-paint, carnelia, shrt, mm, and ochre are within this township.” When I heard what was there, my heart was guided. Having heard of the flood, [I] opened the wrapped books, made a purification, conducted a procession of the hidden ones, [and] made a complete offering of bread, beer, oxen, and birds, and all good things for the gods and goddesses in Yebu whose names had been pronounced. As I slept in peace, I found the god standing before me. [I] propitiated him by adoring him and praying to him. He revealed himself to me with gracious countenance; he said: “I am Khnum, your maker! My arms are around you, || To steady your body, || To safeguard your limbs.
I bestow on you stones on stones, || That were not previously found, || Of which no work was made, || For building temples, || Rebuilding ruins, || Inlaying statues’ eyes. For I am the master who makes, || I am he who made himself, || Exalted Nun, who first came forth, || Hapi who hurries at will; Fashioner of everyone, || Guide of each man in his hour, || Tatenen, father of gods, || Great Shu, high in heaven! The shrine I dwell in has two lips, || When I open up the well, || I know Hapi hugs the field, || A hug that fills each nose with life, || For when hugged, the field is reborn! I will make Hapi gush for you, || No year of lack and want anywhere, || Plants will grow weighed down by their fruit; With Renutet ordering all, || All things are supplied in millions! I will let your people fill up, || They will grasp together with you! Gone will be the years of hunger, || Ended the dearth in their bins. Egypt’s people will come striding, || Shores will shine in the excellent flood, || Hearts will be happier than ever before!”
The Donation. I awoke with a racing heart. Freed from fatigue, I made this decree on behalf of my father Khnum. A royal offering to Khnum, lord of the cataract region and chief of Nubia: “In return for what you have done for me, I offer you Manu as western border, Bakhu as eastern border, from Yebu to Kemsat, being twelve iter on the east and the west, consisting of fields and pastures, of the river, and of every place in these miles. All tenants who cultivate the fields, and the vivifiers who irrigate the shores and all the new lands that are in these miles, their harvests will be taken to your granary, in addition to your share which is in Yebu. All fishermen, all hunters, who catch fish and trap birds and all kinds of game, and all who trap Iions in the desert—I exact from them one-tenth of the stock of all of these, and [of] all the young animals born of the females in these miles. One will give the branded animals for all burnt offerings and daily sacrifices; and one will give one-tenth of gold, ivory, ebony, carob wood, ochre, carnelian, shrt, diw-plants, nfw-plants, all kinds of timber—all the things brought by the Nubians of Khent-hen-nefer’ [to] Egypt, and [by] every man who comes with arrears from them. No officials are to issue orders in these places or take anything from them, for everything is to be protected for your sanctuary. I grant you this domain with [its] stones and good soil. No person there . . . anything from it. But the scribes that belong to you and the overseers of the South will dwell there as accountants, listing everything that the kiry-workers, and the smiths, and the master craftsmen, and the goldsmiths, and the . . . and the Nubians, and the crew of Apiru, and all corvée labor who fashion the stones, will give of gold, silver, copper, lead, baskets of . . . firewood—the things that every man who works with them will give as dues, namely one-tenth of all these. And there will be given one-tenth of the precious stones and quarrying stones that are brought from the mountain side, being the stones of the east. And there will be an overseer who measures the quantities of gold, silver, copper, and genuine precious stones—the things which the sculptors will assign to the gold house [to] fashion the sacred images and to refit the statues that were damaged, and any implements lacking there. Everything will be placed in the storehouse until one fashions anew—when one knows everything that is lacking in your temple, so that it will be as it was in the beginning.” Engrave this decree on a stele of the sanctuary in writing, for it happened as stated, [and] on a tablet, so that the divine writings will be on them in the temple twice. He who spits [on it] treacherously will be handed over for punishment. The overseers of the priests and the chief of all the temple personnel will make my name abide in the temple of Khnum-Ra, lord of Yebu, ever-mighty.
. . . The door[keepers] say: “Let us go and plunder.” The confectioners . . . . The washerman refuses to carry his load . . . . The bird[catchers] have drawn up in line of battle . . . . [The inhabitants] of the Delta carry shields. The brewers . . . sad. A man regards his son as his enemy. Confusion . . . another. Come and conquer; judge . . . what was ordained for you in the time of Horus, in the age [of the Ennead]. The virtuous man goes in mourning because of what has happened in the land . . . goes . . . the tribes of the desert have become Egyptians everywhere.
Indeed, the face is pale; . . . what the ancestors foretold has come to [fruition] . . . the land is full of confederates, and a man goes to plow with his shield.
Indeed, the meek say: “[He who is . . . of] face is as a nobleman.”
Indeed, [the face] is pale; the bowman is ready, wrongdoing is everywhere, and there is no man of yesterday.
Indeed, the plunderer . . . everywhere, and the servant takes what he finds.
Indeed, the Nile overflows, yet none plow for it. Everyone says: “We do not know what will happen throughout the land.”
Indeed, the women are barren, and none conceive. Khnum no longer fashions [men] because of the condition of the land.
Indeed, poor men have become owners of wealth, and he who could not make sandals for himself is now a possessor of riches.
Indeed, men’s slaves, their hearts are sad, and magistrates do not associate with their people when they shout.
Indeed, [hearts] are violent, pestilence is throughout the land, blood is everywhere, death is not lacking, and the mummy-cloth speaks even before one comes near it.
Indeed, many dead are buried in the river; the stream is a tomb, and the place of embalmment has become a stream.
Indeed, noblemen are in distress, while the poor man is full of joy. Every town says: “Let us suppress the powerful among us.”
Indeed, men are like ibises. Squalor is throughout the land, and there are indeed none whose clothes are white in these times.
Indeed, the land turns around as does a potter’s wheel; the robber is a possessor of riches and [the rich man has become] a plunderer.
Indeed, trusty servants are . . . ; the poor man [complains]: “How terrible! What am I to do?”
Indeed, the river is blood, yet men drink of it. Men shrink from human beings and thirst after water.
Indeed, gates, columns, and walls are burned up, while the hall of the palace stands firm and endures.
Indeed, the ship of [the southerners] has broken up, towns are destroyed, and Upper Egypt has become an empty waste.
Indeed, crocodiles [are filled] with the fish they have taken, for men go to them of their own accord; it is the destruction of the land. Men say: “Do not walk here; behold, it is a net.” Behold, men tread [the water] like fishes, and the frightened man cannot distinguish it because of terror.
Indeed, men are few, and he who places his brother in the ground is everywhere. When the wise man speaks, [he flees without delay].
Indeed, the nobleman . . . through lack of recognition, and the child of his lady has become the son of his maidservant.
Indeed, the desert is throughout the land, the nomes are laid waste, and barbarians from abroad have come to Egypt.
Indeed, men arrive . . . and indeed, there are no Egyptians anywhere.
Indeed, gold and lapis lazuli, silver and turquoise, carnelian and amethyst, Ibhet-stone and . . . are strung on the necks of maidservants. Good things are throughout the land, [yet] housewives say: “Oh, that we had something to eat!”
Indeed, . . . noblewomen. Their bodies are in sad plight by reason of their rags, and their hearts sink when greeting [one another].
Indeed, chests of ebony are broken up, and precious ssndm-wood is cleft asunder in beds . . .
Indeed, the builders [of pyramids have become] cultivators, and those who were in the sacred bark are now yoked [to it]. None indeed will sail northward to Byblos today; what will we do for cedar trees for our mummies, and with the produce of which priests are buried and with the oil of which [chiefs] are embalmed as far as Keftiu? They come no more; gold is lacking . . . and materials for every kind of craft have come to an end. The . . . of the palace is despoiled. How often do people of the oases come with their festival spices, mats, and skins, with fresh rdmt-plants, [and] grease of birds . . . ?
Indeed, Elephantine and Thinis [are in the series] of Upper Egypt, [but] without paying taxes owing to civil strife. Lacking are grain, charcoal, irtyw-fruit, mm, ’w-wood, nwt-wood, and brushwood. The work of craftsmen and . . . are the profit of the palace. To what purpose is a treasury without its revenues? Happy indeed is the heart of the king when truth comes to him! And every foreign land [comes]! That is our fate and that is our happiness! What can we do about it? Everything is a ruin!
Indeed, laughter has perished and is [no longer] made; it is groaning that is throughout the land, mingled with complaints.
Indeed, every dead person is as a nobleman. Those who were Egyptians [have become] foreigners and are thrust aside.
Indeed, hair [has fallen out] for everybody, and the man of rank can no longer be distinguished from him who is nobody.
Indeed, . . . because of noise; noise is not . . . in years of noise, and there is no end [of] noise.
Indeed, great and small [say]: “I wish I might die.” Little children say: “He should not have caused [me] to live.”
Indeed, the children of princes are dashed against walls, and the children of the neck are laid out on the high ground.
Indeed, those who were in the place of embalmment are laid out on the high ground, and the secrets of the embalmers are thrown down because of it.
Indeed, that has perished which yesterday has seen, and the land is left over to its weakness like the cutting of flax.
Indeed, the Delta in its entirety will not be hidden, and Lower Egypt puts trust in trodden roads. What can one do? No . . . exist anywhere, and men say: “Perdition to the secret place!” Behold, it is in the hands of those who do not know it like those who know it. The desert dwellers are skilled in the crafts of the Delta.
Indeed, citizens are put to the corn-rubbers, and those who used to don fine linen are beaten with . . . . Those who used to never see the day have gone out unhindered; those who were on their husbands’ beds, let them lie on rafts. I say: “It is too heavy for me,” concerning rafts bearing myrrh. Load them with vessels filled with . . . [Let] them know the palanquin. As for the butler: he is ruined. There are no remedies for it; noblewomen suffer like maidservants, minstrels are at the looms within the weaving-rooms, and what they sing to the Songstree-goddess is mourning. Talkers . . . corn-rubbers.
Indeed, all female slaves are free with their tongues, and when their mistress speaks, it is irksome to the maidservants.
Indeed, trees are felled and branches are stripped off.
I have separated him and his household slaves, and men will say when they hear it: “Cakes are lacking for most children; there is no food . . . What is the taste of it like today?”
Indeed, magnates are hungry and perishing, followers are followed . . . because of complaints.
Indeed, the hot-tempered man says: “If I knew where God is, then I would serve Him.”
Indeed, [the right] pervades the land in name, but what men do in trusting to it is wrong.
Indeed, runners are fighting over the spoil [of] the robber, and all his property is carried off.
Indeed, all animals, their hearts weep; cattle moan because of the state of the land.
Indeed, the children of princes are dashed against walls, and the children of the neck are laid out on the high ground. Khnum groans because of his weariness.
Indeed, terror kills; the frightened man opposes what is done against your enemies. Moreover, the few are pleased, while the rest are . . . . Is it by following the crocodile and cleaving it asunder? Is it by slaying the lion roasted on the fire? [Is it] by sprinkling for Ptah and taking . . . ? Why do you give to him? There is no reaching him. It is misery which you give to him.
Indeed, slaves . . . throughout the land, and the strong man sends to everyone; a man strikes his maternal brother. What is it that has been done? I speak to a ruined man.
Indeed, the ways are . . . , the roads are watched; men sit in the bushes until the ignorant traveler comes in order to plunder his burden, and what is on him is taken away. He is beaten with blows of a stick and murdered.
Indeed, that has perished which yesterday has seen, and the land is left over to its weakness like the cutting of flax, commoners coming and going in dissolution . . .
If only there were an end of men, without conception, without birth! Then the land would be quiet from noise, and tumult [would] be no more.
Indeed, [men eat] pasturage and wash [it] down with water; neither fruit nor pasturage can be found [for] the birds, and . . . is taken away from the mouth of the pig. No face is bright which you have . . . for me through hunger.
Indeed, everywhere barley has perished, and men are stripped of clothes, spice, and oil; everyone says: “There is none.” The storehouse is empty, and its keeper is stretched on the ground—a happy state of affairs!
Would that I had raised my voice at that moment, that it might have saved me from the pain in which I am [in].
Indeed, the private council-chamber, its writings are taken away and the mysteries which were [in it] are laid bare.
Indeed, magic spells are divulged; smw- and shnw-spells are frustrated because they are remembered by men.
Indeed, public offices are opened, and their inventories are taken away; the serf has become an owner of serfs.
Indeed, [scribes] are killed, and their writings are taken away. Woe is me because of the misery of this time!
Indeed, the writings of the scribes of the cadaster are destroyed, and the corn of Egypt is [now] common property.
Indeed, the laws of the council chamber are thrown out; indeed, men walk on them in public places, and poor men break them up in the streets.
Indeed, the poor man has attained to the state of the Nine Gods, and the former procedure of the House of the Thirty is divulged.
Indeed, the great council-chamber is a popular resort, and poor men come and go to the Great Mansions.
Indeed, the children of magnates are ejected into the streets; the wise man agrees, and the fool says “no,” and it is pleasing in the sight of him who knows nothing about it.
Indeed, those who were in the place of embalmment are laid out on the high ground, and the secrets of the embalmers are thrown down because of it.
Behold, the fire has gone up on high, and its burning goes forth against the enemies of the land.
Behold, things have been done which have not happened for a long time past; the king has been deposed by the rabble.
Behold, he who was buried as a falcon [is devoid] of biers, and what the pyramid concealed has become empty.
Behold, it has happened that the land has been deprived of the kingship by a few lawless men.
Behold, men have fallen into rebellion against the Uraeus, the . . . of Ra, even she who makes the Two Lands content.
Behold, the secret of the land, whose limits were unknown, is divulged, and the Residence is thrown down in a moment.
Behold, Egypt has fallen to [the] pouring of water, and he who poured water on the ground has carried off the strong man in misery.
Behold, the Serpent is taken from its hole, and the secrets of the Kings of Upper and Lower Egypt are divulged.
Behold, the Residence is afraid because of need, and [men go around] unopposed to stir up strife.
Behold, the land has tangled itself up with factions, and the coward takes the brave man’s property.
Behold, the Serpent . . . the dead: he who could not make a sarcophagus for himself is now the possessor of a tomb.
Behold, the possessors of tombs are ejected on to the high ground, while he who could not make a coffin for himself is now [the possessor] of a treasury.
Behold, this has happened [to] men; he who could not build a room for himself is now a possessor of walls.
Behold, the magistrates of the land are driven out throughout the land: . . . are driven out from the palaces.
Behold, noblewomen are now on rafts, and magnates are in the labor establishment, while he who could not sleep even on walls is now the possessor of a bed.
Behold, the possessor of wealth now spends the night thirsty, while he who once begged [for] dregs for himself is now the possessor of overflowing bowls.
Behold, the possessors of robes are now in rags, while he who could not weave for himself is now a possessor of fine linen.
Behold, he who could not build a boat for himself is now the possessor of a fleet; their former owner looks at them, but they are not his.
Behold, he who had no shade is now the possessor of shade, while the former possessors of shade are now in the full blast of the storm.
Behold, he who was ignorant of the lyre is now the possessor of a harp, while he who never sang for himself now vaunts the Songstress-goddess.
Behold, those who possessed vessel-stands of copper . . . not one of the jars thereof has been adorned.
Behold, he who slept wifeless through need [finds] riches, while he whom he never saw stands making dole.
Behold, he who had no property is now a possessor of wealth, and the magnate praises him.
Behold, the poor of the land have become rich, and the [former owner] of property is one who has nothing.
Behold, servants have become masters of butlers, and he who was once a messenger now sends someone else.
Behold, he who had no loaf is now the owner of a barn, and his storehouse is provided with the goods of another.
Behold, he whose hair has fallen out and who had no oil has now become the possessors of jars of sweet myrrh.
Behold, she who had no box is now the owner of a coffer, and she who had to look at her face in the water is now the owner of a mirror.
Behold, . . . .
Behold, a man is happy eating his food. Consume your goods in gladness and unhindered, for it is good for a man to eat his food; God commands it for him whom He has favored . . . .
[[Behold, he who did not know]] his god now offers to him with incense of another [who is] not known [to him].
[[Behold,]] great ladies, once possessors of riches, now give their children for beds.
Behold, a man [to whom is given] a noble lady as wife, her father protects him, and he who has not . . . killing him.
Behold, the children of magistrates are . . . [the calves] of cattle [are given over] to the plunderers.
Behold, priests transgress with the cattle of the poor . . .
Behold, he who could not slaughter for himself now slaughters bulls, and he who did not know how to carve now sees . . .
Behold, priests transgress with geese, which are given [to] the gods instead of oxen.
Behold, maidservants . . . offer ducks; noblewomen . . . .
Behold, noblewomen flee; the overseers of . . . and their [children] are cast down through fear of death.
[[Behold,]] the chiefs of the land flee; there is no purpose for them because of need. The lord of . . .
[[Behold,]] those who once owned beds are now on the ground, while he who once slept in squalor now lays out a skin-mat for himself.
Behold, noblewomen go hungry, while the priests are sated with what has been prepared for them.
Behold, no offices are in their right place, like a herd running at random without a herdsman.
Behold, cattle stray and there is none to collect them, but everyone fetches for himself those that are branded with his name.
Behold, a man is slain beside his brother, who runs away and abandons him to save his own skin.
Behold, he who had no yoke of oxen is now the owner of a herd, and he who could find for himself no plowman is now the owner of cattle.
Behold, he who had no grain is now the owner of granaries, and he who had to fetch loan-corn for himself is now one who issues it.
Behold, he who had no dependents is now an owner of serfs, and he who was [a magnate] now performs his own errands.
Behold, the strong men of the land, the condition of the people is not reported [to them]. Everything is ruin!
Behold, no craftsmen work, for the enemies of the land have impoverished its craftsmen.
[[Behold, he who once recorded]] the harvest now knows nothing about it, while he who never plowed [[for himself is now the owner of corn; the reaping]] takes place but is not reported. The scribe [sits in his office], but his hands [are idle] in it.
Destroyed is . . . in that time, and a man looks [on his friend as] an adversary. The sick man brings coolness [to what is hot] . . . fear . . . . Poor men . . . [the land] is not bright because of it.
Destroyed is . . . their food is taken from them . . . [through] fear of his terror. The commoner begs . . . messenger, but not . . . time. He is captured laden with goods and [all his property] is taken away. . . . men pass by his door . . . the outside of the wall, a shed, and rooms containing falcons. It is the common man who will be vigilant, the day having dawned on him without his dreading it. Men run because of . . . [for] the temple of the head, strained through a woven cloth within the house. What they make are tents, just like the desert people.
Destroyed is the doing of that for which men are sent by retainers in the service of their masters; they have no readiness. Behold, they are five men, and they say: “Go on the road you know, for we have arrived.”
Lower Egypt weeps; the king’s storehouse is the common property of everyone, and the entire palace is without its revenues. To it belong emmer and barley, birds and fish; to it belong white cloth and fine linen, copper and oil; to it belong carpet and mat, . . . flowers, and wheat-sheaf, and all good revenues . . . . If the . . . it in the palace were delayed, men would be devoid [of] . . . .
Destroy the enemies of the august Residence, splendid of magistrates . . . in it like . . . ; indeed, the governor of the city goes unescorted.
Destroy [the enemies of the august Residence,] splendid . . .
[[Destroy the enemies of]] that former august Residence, manifold of laws . . .
[[Destroy the enemies of]] that former august [[Residence]] . . . .
Destroy the enemies of that former august Residence . . . none can stand . . .
Destroy the enemies of that former august Residence, manifold of offices; indeed . . .
Remember to immerse . . . him who is in pain when he is sick in his body; show respect . . . because of his god that he may guard the utterance . . . his children who are witnesses of the surging of the flood.
Remember to . . . shrine, to fumigate with incense, and to offer water in a jar in the early morning.
Remember [to bring] fat r-geese, trp-geese, and ducks and to offer [the] god’s offerings to the gods.
Remember to chew natron and to prepare white bread; a man [should do it] on the day of wetting the head.
Remember to erect flagstaffs and to carve offering stones—the priest cleansing the chapels, and the temple being plastered [white] like milk; to make pleasant the odor of the horizon and to provide bread-offerings.
Remember to observe regulations, to fix dates correctly, and to remove him who enters on the priestly office in impurity of body, for that is doing it wrongfully, it is destruction of the heart . . . the day which precedes eternity, the months . . . years are known.
Remember to slaughter oxen . . .
Remember to go forth purged . . . who calls to you; to put r-geese on the fire . . . to open the jar . . . the shore of the waters . . . of women . . . clothing . . . to give praise . . . in order to appease you.
. . . lack of people; come . . . Ra who commands . . . worshiping him . . . West until . . . are diminished . . .
Behold, why does he seek to fashion [men] . . . ? The frightened man is not distinguished from the violent one.
He brings coolness on heat; men say: “He is the herdsman of mankind, and there is no evil in his heart.” Though his herds are few, yet he spends a [whole] day to collect them—their hearts being on fire. If only he had perceived their nature in the first generation! Then he would have imposed obstacles, he would have stretched out his arm against them, he would have destroyed their herds and their heritage. Men desire the giving of birth, but sadness follows, with needy people on all sides. So it is, and it will not pass away while the gods who are in the midst of it exist. Seed goes forth into mortal women, but none are found on the road. Combat has gone forth, and he who should be a redresser of evils is one who commits them; neither do men act as pilot in their hour of duty. Where is he today? Is he asleep? Behold, his power is not seen.
If we had been fed, I would not have found you, I would not have been summoned in vain: “Aggression against it means pain of heart” is a saying on the lips of everyone. Today he who is afraid . . . a myriad of people; . . . did not see . . . against the enemies of . . . at his outer chamber; who enter the temple . . . weeping for him . . . that one who confounds what he has said . . . The land has not fallen . . . the statues are burned and their tombs destroyed . . . he sees the day of . . . . He who could not make for himself . . . between sky and ground is afraid of everyone. . . . if he does it . . . what you dislike taking. Authority, knowledge, and truth are with you, yet confusion is what you set throughout the land—also the noise of tumult. Behold, one deals harm to another, for men conform to what you have commanded. If three men travel on the road, they are found to be only two, for the many kill the few.
Does a herdsman desire death? Then may you command reply to be made, because it means that one loves [that] another detests; it means that their existences are few everywhere; it means that you have acted so as to bring those things to pass. You have told lies, and the land is a weed which destroys men, and none can count on life. All these years are strife, and a man is murdered on his housetop even though he was vigilant in his gate lodge. Is he brave and saves himself? It means he will live.
When men send a servant for humble folk, he goes on the road until he sees the flood; the road is washed out and he stands worried. What is on him is taken away; he is beaten with blows of a stick and wrongfully slain. Oh, that you could taste a little of the misery of it! Then you would say . . . from someone else as a wall, over and above . . . hot . . . years . . . .
[[It is indeed good]] when ships fare upstream . . . robbing them. It is indeed good . . . .
[[It is indeed]] good when the net is drawn in and birds are tied up . . . .
It is [[indeed]] good . . . dignities for them, and the roads are passable.
It is indeed good when the hands of men build pyramids, when ponds are dug and plantations of the trees of the gods are made.
It is indeed good when men are drunk; they drink myt and their hearts are happy.
It is indeed good when shouting is in men’s mouths, when the magnates of districts stand looking on at the shouting in their houses, clad in a cloak, cleansed in front and well-provided within.
It is indeed good when beds are prepared, and the headrests of magistrates are safely secured. Every man’s need is satisfied with a couch in the shade, and a door is now shut on him who once slept in the bushes.
It is indeed good when fine linen is spread out on New Year’s Day . . . on the bank; when fine linen is spread out, and cloaks are on the ground. The overseer of . . . the trees, the poor . . . in their midst like Asians . . . . Men . . . the state thereof; they have come to an end of themselves; none can be found to stand up and protect themselves . . . . Everyone fights for his sister and saves his own skin. Is it Nubians? Then will we guard ourselves; warriors are made many in order to ward off foreigners. Is it Libyans? Then we will turn away. The Medjay are pleased with Egypt.
How does it come to pass that every man kills his brother? The troops whom we marshaled for ourselves have turned into foreigners and have taken to ravaging. What has come to pass through it is informing the Asians of the state of the land; all the desert folk are possessed with the fear of it. What the masses have tasted . . . without giving Egypt over [to] the sand. It is strong . . . speak about you after years . . . devastate itself, it is the threshing floor which nourishes their houses . . . to nourish his children . . . said by the troops . . . fish . . . gum, lotus leaves . . . excess of food.
What Ipuwer said when he addressed the Majesty of the Lord of All: . . . all herds. It means that ignorance of it is what is pleasing to the heart. You have done what was good in their hearts, and you have nourished the people with it. They cover their faces through fear of the next day. That is how a man grows old before he dies, while his son is a youth of understanding; he does not open [his] mouth to speak to you, but you seize him in the doom of death . . . weep . . . go . . . after you, that the land may be . . . on every side.
If men call to . . . weep . . . them, who break into the tombs and burn the statues . . . the corpses of the nobles . . . of directing work.
. . . and cut . . .
. . . my father went up [[against him
when h]]e fought at . . .
and my father lay down,
he went to his [[ancestors]].
And the king of Israel
entered previously in my father’s land,
[and] Hadad made me king,
And Hadad went in front of me,
[and] I departed from the seven . . .
. . . of my kingdom,
and I slew [[seve]]nty kin[[gs]], who harnessed th[[ousands of cha]]riots
and thousands of horsemen [[or horses]].
[[I killed Jeho]]ram son [[of Ahab]],
king of Israel, and [I] killed [[Ahaz]]iah
son of [[Jehoram]],
[[king]] of the House of David,
and I set [[their towns into ruins
and turned]]
their land into [[desolation]]
. . . other . . . [[and Jehu ru]]led
over Is[[rael and I laid]]
siege on . . .
The princes are prostrate, saying, “Peace!”
Not [even] one raises his head
among the Nine Bows.
Desolation is for Libya;
Hatti is pacified;
Canaan is plundered with every calamity;
Ashkelon is carried away;
Gezer is seized;
Yanoam is made non-existent;
Israel is laid waste—its seed is no more;
Kharru has become a widow
because of Egypt.
All lands, together, are pacified.
Everyone who was restless
has been restrained.
I am Mesha, son of Chemosh-Gad, king of Moab, the Dibonite. My father reigned over Moab [for] thirty years, and I have reigned after my father. And I have built this sanctuary for Chemosh in Karchah, a sanctuary of salvation, for he saved me from all aggressors and made me look on all my enemies with contempt.
Omri was king of Israel and oppressed Moab during many days, and Chemosh was angry with his aggressions. His son succeeded him, and he also said, “I will oppress Moab.” In my days he said, “Let us go, and I will see my desire on him and his house,” and Israel said, “I will destroy it forever.” Now Omri took the land of Madeba and occupied it in his day, and in the days of his son, forty years. And Chemosh had mercy on it in my time. And I built Baal-Meon and made therein the ditch, and I built Kiriathaim.
And the men of Gad dwelled in the country of Ataroth from ancient times, and the king of Israel fortified Ataroth. I assaulted the wall, and captured it, and killed all the warriors of the city for the satisfaction of Chemosh and Moab, and I removed from it all the spoil, and offered it before Chemosh in Kirjath; and I placed therein the men of Siran, and the men of Mochrath. And Chemosh said to me, “Go, take Nebo against Israel,” and I went in the night, and I fought against it from the break of day until noon, and I took it; and I killed in all seven thousand men . . . women and maidens, for I devoted them to Ashtar-Chemosh; and I took from it the vessels of Jehovah, and offered them before Chemosh.
And the king of Israel fortified Jahaz, and occupied it, when he made war against me, and Chemosh drove him out before me, and I took from Moab two hundred men in all, and placed them in Jahaz, and took it to annex it to Dibon.
I built Karchah, the wall of the forest, and the wall of the Hill. I have built its gates, and I have built its towers. I have built the palace of the king, and I made the prisons for the criminals within the wall. And there were no wells in the interior of the wall in Karchah. And I said to all the people, “Make, every man, a well in his house.” And I dug the ditch for Karchah with the chosen men of Israel. I built Aroer, and I made the road across the Arnon. I built Beth-Bamoth, for it was destroyed. I built Bezer, for it was cut down by the armed men of Daybon, for all Daybon was now loyal; and I reigned from Bikran, which I added to my land. And I built Beth-Gamul, and Beth-Diblathaim . . . Beth-Baal-Meon, and I placed the poor people of the land there.
And as for Horonaim, the men of Edom dwelt therein, on the descent from old. And Chemosh said to me, “Go down, make war against Horonaim, and take it.” And I assaulted it, and I took it, for Chemosh restored it in my days. Wherefore I made . . . year . . . and I . . .
610. In the year of Dâian-Assur, in the month of Airu, the fourteenth day, I departed from Nineveh, crossed the Tigris, and drew near to the cities of Giammu, [near] the Balih River. At the fearfulness of my sovereignty, the terror of my frightful weapons, they became afraid; with their own weapons his nobles killed Giammu. I entered into Kitlala and Til-sha-mâr-ahi. I had my gods brought into his palaces. In his palaces I spread a banquet. I opened his treasury. I saw his wealth. His goods, his property, I carried off and brought to my city [of] Assur. I departed from Kitlala. I drew near to Kâr-Shalmaneser. In [goat-]skin boats I crossed the Euphrates the second time, at its flood. The tribute of the kings on that side of the Euphrates—of Sangara of Carchemish, of Kundashpi of Kumuhu, of Arame son of Gûzi, of Lalli the Milidean, of Haiani son of Gahari, of Kalparoda of Hattina, of Kalparuda of Gurgum—silver, gold, lead, copper, vessels of copper, at Ina-Assur-uttir-asbat, on that side of the Euphrates, on the river Sagur, which the people of Hatti call Pitru, there I received [it]. From the Euphrates I departed, I drew near to Halman [(Aleppo)]. They were afraid to fight with [me]; they seized my feet. I received silver [and] gold as their tribute. I offered sacrifices before the god Adad of Halman. From Halman I departed. To the cities of Irhulêni, the Hamathite, I drew near. The cities of Adennu, Bargâ, Arganâ, his royal cities, I captured. His spoil, his property, the goods of his palaces, I brought out. I set fire to his palaces. I departed from Argana. I drew near to Karkar.
611. Karkar, his royal city, I destroyed, I devastated, I burned with fire. One thousand two hundred chariots, one thousand two hundred cavalry, twenty thousand soldiers, of Hadadezer of Aram; seven hundred chariots, seven hundred cavalry, ten thousand soldiers of Irhulêni of Hamath; two thousand chariots, ten thousand soldiers of Ahab the Israelite; five hundred soldiers of the Gueans; one thousand soldiers of the Musreans; ten chariots, ten thousand soldiers of the Irkanateans; two hundred soldiers of Matinuba’il the Arvadite; two hundred soldiers of the Usanateans; thirty chariots, . . . soldiers of Adunu-Ba’il the Shianean; one thousand camels of Gindibu’ the Arabian; . . . soldiers [of] Ba’sa, son of Ruhubi, the Ammonite. These twelve kings he brought to his support, to provide battle and fight, they came against me. [Trusting] in the exalted might which Assur, the lord, had given [me], in the mighty weapons, which Nergal, who goes before me, had presented [to me], I battled with them. From Karkar, as far as the city of Gilzau, I routed them. Fourteen thousand of their warriors I slew with the sword. Like Adad, I rained destruction on them. I scattered their corpses far and wide, [and] filled the face of the desolate plain with their widespread armies. With [my] weapons I made their blood flow down the valleys of the land. The plain was too small to let their bodies fall; the wide countryside was expended in burying them. With their bodies I spanned the Arantu as with a bridge. In that battle I took from them their chariots, their cavalry, their horses, broken to the yoke.
What else can we say, when the wise are forcibly dragged off by tyrants, their wisdom is captured by insults, and their minds are oppressed and without defense? What advantage did the Athenians gain from murdering Socrates? Famine and plague came on them as a punishment for their crime. What advantage did the men of Samos gain from burning Pythagoras? In a moment their land was covered with sand. What advantage did the Jews gain from executing their wise King? It was just after that their kingdom was abolished. God justly avenged these three wise men: the Athenians died of hunger; the Samians were overwhelmed by the sea; and the Jews, desolate and driven from their own kingdom, live in complete dispersion. But Socrates is not dead, because of Plato; neither is Pythagoras, because of the statue of Juno; nor is the wise King, because of the “new law” He laid down.
It is my practice, my lord, to refer to you all matters concerning which I am in doubt. For who can better give guidance to my hesitation or inform my ignorance? I have never participated in trials of Christians. Therefore, I do not know what offenses it is the practice to punish or investigate, and to what extent. And I have been not a little hesitant as to whether there should be any distinction on account of age or no difference between the very young and the more mature; whether pardon is to be granted for conversion, or, if a man has [ever] once been a Christian, it does him no good to have ceased to be one; whether the name itself, even without offenses, or only the offenses associated with the name are to be punished. Meanwhile, in the case of those who were denounced to me as Christians, I have observed the following procedure: I interrogated these as to whether they were Christians; those who confessed, I interrogated a second and a third time, threatening them with punishment; those who persisted, I ordered executed. For I had no doubt that, whatever the nature of their creed, stubbornness and unyielding obstinacy surely deserve to be punished. There were others possessed of the same folly, but because they were Roman citizens, I signed an order for them to be transferred to Rome. Soon accusations spread, as usually happens, because of the proceedings occurring, and several incidents ensued. An anonymous document was published containing the names of many persons. Those who denied that they were or had been Christians, when they invoked the gods in words dictated by me, offered prayer with incense and wine to your image, which I had ordered to be brought for this purpose together with statues of the gods, and moreover cursed Christ (none of which those who are really Christians, it is said, can be forced to do). I thought these should be discharged. Others named by the informer declared that they were Christians, but then denied it, asserting that they had been [before], but had [since] ceased to be, some three years before, others many years, some as much as twenty-five years. They all worshiped your image and the statues of the gods, and cursed Christ. They asserted, however, that the sum and substance of their fault or error had been that they were accustomed to meet on a fixed day before dawn and sing responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god, and to bind themselves by oath, not to some crime, but not to commit fraud, theft, or adultery, not falsify their trust, nor to refuse to return a trust when called on to do so. When this was over, it was their custom to depart and to assemble again to partake of food—but ordinary and innocent food. Even this, they affirmed, they had ceased to do after my edict by which, in accordance with your instructions, I had forbidden political associations. Accordingly, I judged it all the more necessary to find out what the truth was by torturing two female slaves who were called deaconesses. But I discovered nothing else but depraved, excessive superstition. Therefore, I postponed the investigation and hurried to consult you. For the matter seemed to me to warrant consulting you, especially because of the number involved. For many persons of every age, every rank, and also of both sexes are and will be endangered. For the contagion of this superstition has spread not only to the cities, but also to the villages and farms. But it seems possible to check and cure it. It is certainly quite clear that the temples, which had been almost deserted, have begun to be frequented, that the established religious rites, long neglected, are being resumed, and that from everywhere sacrificial animals are coming, for which until now very few purchasers could be found. Hence it is easy to imagine what a multitude of people can be reformed if an opportunity for conversion is offered.
You observed proper procedure, my dear Pliny, in sifting the cases of those who had been denounced to you as Christians. For it is not possible to lay down any general rule to serve as a kind of fixed standard. They are not to be sought out; if they are denounced and proved guilty, they are to be punished, with this reservation: that whoever denies that he is a Christian and really proves it—that is, by worshiping our gods—even though he was under suspicion in the past, will obtain pardon through conversion. But anonymously posted accusations should have no place in any prosecution. For this is both a dangerous kind of precedent and out of step with the spirit of our age.
But all human efforts, all the lavish gifts of the emperor, and the propitiations of the gods, did not banish the sinister belief that the fire was the result of [Nero’s own] order. Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christ, from whom the Name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most troublesome superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their center and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, on their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of burning the city, as of hatred against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired. Nero offered his gardens for the spectacle, and was exhibiting a show in the circus, while he mingled with the people in the dress of a charioteer or stood aloft on a car. Hence, even for criminals who deserved extreme and exemplary punishment, there arose a feeling of compassion [for the Christians]; for it was not, as it seemed, for the public good, but to satiate one man’s cruelty, that they were being destroyed.
Since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Christ, [Claudius] expelled them from Rome. . . . During [Nero’s] reign, many abuses were severely punished and put down, and no fewer new laws were made: a limit was set to expenditures; the public banquets were confined to a distribution of food; the sale of any kind of cooked items in the taverns was forbidden, with the exception of pulse and vegetables, whereas before every sort of delicacy was exposed for sale. Punishment was inflicted on the Christians, a class of men given to a new and troublesome superstition. He put an end to the diversions of the chariot drivers, who from immunity of long standing claimed the right of ranging at large and amusing themselves by cheating and robbing the people. The pantomimic actors and their partisans were banished from the city.
Jesus, while alive, was of no assistance to Himself, but that He arose after death, and exhibited the marks of His punishment, and showed how His hands had been pierced by nails.
In the fourth year, however, of Olympiad 202, an eclipse of the sun happened, greater and more excellent than any that had happened before it; at the sixth hour, day turned into dark night, so that the stars were seen in the sky, and an earthquake in Bithynia toppled many buildings of the city of Nicaea.